Using the Intelligent Careers Card Sort with university students. (Effective Techniques).
    Career Development Quarterly; 3/1/2003; Amundson‚ Norman E.


The authors describe the experiences of university students who completed the Intelligent Careers Card Sort[R] (ICCS)‚ a career exploration exercise that is based on the Intelligent Career framework. The Intelligent Career suggests that there are 3 ways of knowing‚ which individuals should consider to successfully navigate the workplace: knowing-why‚ knowing-how‚ and knowing-whom. This model is discussed in the context of the subjective career and the changing economy‚ and research on card sorts is briefly reviewed. In general‚ students thought that the ICCS was a useful part of the career development groups in which it was administered. 

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Counselors work in an ever-changing environment that is marked by economic‚ social‚ and cultural shifts. To help clients in their search for personally meaningful careers‚ it is essential for counselors and theorists to develop and test new models that are responsive to these changes (Peavy‚ 1997; Savickas‚ 2000‚ 2001b). In this article‚ we define career as "the evolving sequence of a person's work experiences over time" (Arthur‚ Hall‚ & Lawrence‚ 1989‚ p. 8); this definition takes into account movement and change within both individuals and their environments. By focusing on individual experience‚ this definition highlights the importance of the subjective view. This is especially relevant in today's service-based‚ postindustrial economy‚ which requires individuals to take greater personal responsibility for their career development (Hall‚ 1996). 

The subjective view of career differs from person to person (Betz & Fitzgerald‚ 1987) because it includes an individual's feelings about his or her career accomplishments and expectations for future achievement (Gattiker & Larwood‚ 1986). Career success refers to the attainment of goals that are personally meaningful to the individual rather than the attainment of goals that are set by others (Mirvis & Hall‚ 1994). The objective career‚ conversely‚ is the observed career progress of an individual through an organization or occupation (Collin & Young‚ 1986) and relies on a behaviorally based model of the self‚ a "psychometric self" that will be assessed and given therapy (Peavy‚ 1997). 

Career literature that focuses on the objective rather than the subjective career ignores the "perceptions‚ feelings‚ and values of the individuals concerned‚ and the relationship between job and the rest of life" (Collin & Young‚ 1986‚ p. 841). These individual experiences are precisely those that counselors must attend to in order to create an atmosphere of "mattering" (Amundson‚ 1998) in which an effective client-counselor relationship can be formed.

To understand a client's subjective view‚ the individual meaning and personal experience expressed through anecdotes and stories must be investigated (Collin & Young‚ 1986; Parker‚ 2002; Savickas‚ 1991). Counselors' use of facilitating questions and active listening encourages clients to express their narratives‚ thereby helping individuals enhance their self-knowledge‚ anticipate choices and transitions‚ explore possibilities‚ choose directions that improve fit and develop the self‚ and learn to appreciate their unique value (Amundson‚ 1998; Parker‚ 2002). 

The Intelligent Career Framework 

Arthur‚ Claman‚ and DeFillippi (1995) have developed a theory of career termed the Intelligent Career‚ which builds on Quinn's (1992) work on the Intelligent Enterprise. This approach comes out of a broader exploration of the boundary-less career model (Arthur & Rousseau‚ 1996)‚ which is based on the recognition that contemporary careers are not restricted to one employer or even to one occupation. 

Boundaryless organizations are those that emerged in response to the globalization of the economy and the movement to information-driven‚ service-based business (Arthur‚ 1994; Mirvis & Hall‚ 1994). A boundaryless career‚ by extension‚ is marked by a variety of tasks that may or may not be easily transferred into a job title‚ entails a periodic redefinition of profession‚ and often includes several career and job changes over the course of a lifetime (Arthur‚ 1994). 

The Intelligent Career is based on three subjective ways of knowing that reflect the development of important areas of one's life. These are (a) knowing-why‚ (b) knowing-how‚ and (c) knowing-whom. Knowing-why refers to meaning‚ to one's personal beliefs and values‚ and to the sources of motivation for a certain career path (Arthur et al.‚ 1995; DeFillippi & Arthur‚ 1994). Knowing-how pertains to the technical skills and knowledge a person brings to his or her career and to a company (Arthur et al.‚ 1995; DeFillippi & Arthur‚ 1994). Knowing-whom involves the interpersonal connections that link people to employment opportunities and to developments within their field (DeFillippi & Arthur‚ 1994). 

The Intelligent Career provides‚ in two ways‚ a uniquely holistic view‚ an essential characteristic for effective career counseling (Savickas‚ 1996). First‚ the theory emphasizes three interdependent yet conceptually separate competencies. Second‚ the theory allows work to be considered from a subjective point of view in the overall pattern of people's lives‚ not as separate from it (Parker‚ 2000). 

Using Card Sorts to Elicit the Subjective Career 

A variety of career counseling tools have been developed to elicit individual meaning. These include writing and drawing exercises‚ guided imagery‚ and card sorts‚ but research on their effectiveness is lacking. 

Some research has been conducted on vocational card sorts‚ typically consisting of approximately 100 three-by-five-inch cards on which occupational titles are printed. The cards are sorted into categories‚ such as "would not choose‚" "would choose‚" and "undecided"; the reasons for making the choices are also considered. It has been demonstrated that card sorts have many positive features that make them useful career counseling tools (Goldman‚ 1982‚ 1983; Slaney & Mackinnon-Slaney‚ 1990). 

First‚ the card sort process can be seen as a structured interview technique that focuses on a client's reasons for making his or her career choices (Goldman‚ 1983); the card sorts give clients the freedom to choose from a number of different options while at the same time providing an organizing framework. Second‚ card sorts demand a client's active participation. Third‚ results are generated immediately‚ and the absence of technology removes the mystery from career decision making (Goldman‚ 1982). Fourth‚ card sorts require counselors to become involved in the process in a subjectively oriented manner (Slaney & Mackinnon-Slaney‚ 1990). Finally‚ they are appropriate for a wide range of clients. Cognitively complex clients‚ such as university students‚ benefit from the opportunity to organize their ideas and to engage in individual thinking (Slaney & Mackinnon-Slaney‚ 1990). 

In general‚ researchers have suggested that card sorts are effective interventions that compare favorably with other widely used standardized instruments (Slaney & Mackinnon-Slaney‚ 1990). However‚ because most studies have used self-administered sorts that did not require counselor intervention‚ there was a need to investigate counselor-administered card sorts. 

Intelligent Careers Card Sort (ICCS) 

Using the concepts of the Intelligent Career model (Arthur et al.‚ 1995)‚ the ICCS was specifically developed to elicit an individual's views regarding his or her desired career; the information is gathered through a process that engages client and counselor in a dynamic‚ constructive dialogue. It is composed of 112 cards that are subdivided into three color-coded sections (blue‚ yellow‚ and green) of up to 40 cards‚ each of which represents three ways of knowing: knowing-why (blue cards)‚ knowing-how (yellow cards)‚ and knowing-whom (green cards). The sort was developed through a research project conducted by Parker (1996) and is currently undergoing field testing. 

The ICCS contains statements that are sorted into piles on the basis of whether or not the statement reflects current career behavior and beliefs. The knowing-why cards reflect personality traits‚ values‚ personal and family situations‚ and the influence of past and present work experiences. The knowing-how cards explore the steps the individual is taking to gain technical/professional skill and expertise. The knowing-whom cards describe friendship‚ support systems‚ relationships with mentors‚ and personal networks as they affect work relationships.

The process is identical for each of the three sets of cards‚ as described by Parker (2002). The client begins with one set of cards and quickly sorts them into two piles according to their immediate subjective appeal: "This applies to me" or "This doesn't apply to me." The applicable cards are then divided into two piles: "These are more important" and "these are less important." From the "more important" cards‚ the client selects seven and places those in rank order. 

The next step is for the counselor to enter the client's choices into a software program and generate a printout (Parker‚ 2002). However‚ for our study‚ the participants were supplied with a photocopied package in which they noted their choices and comments. Having knowledge of the client's choices provides the basis for a discussion between the client and counselor‚ if the TOGS is administered individually‚ or between group members‚ if it is administered in a group setting (Arthur & Parker‚ 1997). The purpose of this dialogue is for clients to better understand what their card choices mean‚ how past experiences have led them to choose their seven cards‚ and how the meanings they ascribe to those cards might influence present and future career choices (Parker‚ 2002). The counselor's role is to facilitate the process by inquiring about the client's choices. 

The ICCS is used in an open-ended manner that reveals individuals' unique experiences‚ and thus‚ different clients may interpret the same card statement in different ways. For example‚ one knowing-why cards states‚ "I like to fulfill personal goals at work." For one client‚ this goal may be to achieve a leadership position‚ whereas for another client‚ it may be to produce consistently high-quality work. This underscores the importance of counselor involvement. 

Parker (2000)‚ in her research on the ICCS‚ received positive feedback on a number of the features of the card sort. People with a kinesthetic learning style appreciated the tactile aspect of physically working with the cards. Participants also reported that they found the card sort process more interesting than writing a career history or keeping a diary because it provided a guideline for developing personal narratives without imposing objective criteria. 

Career Development of Postsecondary Students 

Although economic changes affect all job seekers‚ they especially affect university and college students (Borgen‚ Hatch‚ & Amundson‚ 1990; Rayman‚ 1992) who are just beginning to develop a career identity and venture into the world of work. Many students face their graduations with trepidation‚ lacking a career goal and the skills needed for navigating a world that is very different from that of higher education (Borgen et al.‚ 1990; Buckham‚ 1998; Lewallen‚ 1993; Luzzo‚ McWhirter‚ & Hutcheson‚ 1997; Orndorff & Herr‚ 1996; Rayman‚ 1992). 

The senior undergraduate students interviewed by Buckham (1998) lamented their lack of understanding about "the real world" of work and recognized that they needed deeper levels of knowledge and understanding about changing labor markets. Similarly‚ Orndorff and Herr (1996) found that undergraduates lacked the skills and knowledge needed to make an informed occupational choice. Furthermore‚ in his study‚ Lewallen (1993) found that being undecided about a career was the norm rather than the exception among college students. 

In a study that underscored the negative effects of unemployment on university graduates‚ Borgen et al. (1990) found fluctuations in emotion‚ an "emotional roller coaster‚" and a reduction in self-confidence‚ suggesting that college and university counselors can help prospective graduates by discussing the environmental factors that may pose a challenge to the smooth career entry that was once assumed to be the norm for college graduates. 

The purpose of this study was to explore‚ through focus group interviews‚ the experiences of university students who completed the ICCS. It was expected that students would be able to describe how and why the process was or was not useful to them in clarifying their vocational interests and in increasing their levels of self-understanding. 

Method 

Setting and Participants 

The 28 participants were students at the University of British Columbia (UBC). UBC is located in Vancouver‚ British Columbia‚ and has an enrollment of approximately 35‚000 students. The age range of participants was 17-53 years‚ with a median age of 26 years. There were 22 women and 6 men in the sample; 20 were undergraduates‚ and 8 were graduate students. The sample contained 25 full-time students‚ 1 part-time student‚ and 2 alumni. Caucasian‚ Asian‚ and Southeast Asian students participated; however‚ statistics regarding ethnic and cultural background were not collected. Of the 28 students who completed the ICCS‚ 20 were present at the focus group interviews‚ resulting in interview groups that consisted of 2 to 5 participants. 

Students were recruited through the five-session career development groups offered at UBC's Counselling Services. These groups consist of a maximum of 8 participants and are scheduled over 5 weekly‚ 2-hour sessions. Career development groups follow a psychoeducational format that includes a variety of exercises that are designed to explore and clarify interests‚ values‚ skills‚ and decision-making abilities. For example‚ the Strong Interest Inventory (Hansen & Campbell‚ 1985) and Keirsey-Bates Temperament Sorter (Keirsey & Bates‚ 1978) are administered and interpreted during group sessions. 

Procedure 

The research was undertaken in six career development groups that were facilitated during the fall 2000 semester and was conducted in two phases. During Phase 1‚ the ICCS was administered during the 2nd hour of each of the first career development group sessions. Phase 2 took place in the last session of each group‚ at which time students participated in 30-minute‚ audiotaped focus group interviews. Field notes were taken during card sort administrations and focus group interviews and were compared with transcripts for consistency and to begin developing themes. 

Results and Discussion 

Thematic Categories 

Because the purpose of this study was to uncover the positive and negative factors of the ICCS‚ thematic categories were assigned to a positive or negative column by the first author‚ who used the focus group data analysis procedure described by Vaughn‚ Schumm‚ and Sinagub (1996). Briefly‚ this method involves transcribing recorded interviews and identifying thematic units of data. The first author analyzed transcripts across groups and sorted data units into themes on the basis of the following research question: What were the positive and negative factors of the ICCS as experienced by university students? The second author reviewed and further refined the categories‚ and a graduate student in counseling psychology re-sorted the data units; interrater reliability was 92%. 

To make the data clearer and more understandable‚ the categories were divided (during the development of the procedure) into subcategories that indicate the types of statements participants made. The criteria for each category and subcategory were finalized once data units were sorted into groups. Table 1 shows the number of data units per category and the titles and subtitles of thematic categories. For example‚ the category of "Wording" refers specifically to the language on card sort items‚ whereas the subcategory "liked use of first person" refers to this aspect of the item's language. 

In interpreting the results from this study‚ it is important to keep in mind the preliminary nature of the research. The focus was primarily exploratory‚ and the results should be interpreted accordingly. 

Participant Feedback 

The majority of statements about the ICCS indicated that students found it to be useful. Interpreting the focus group feedback must begin by acknowledging the strong positive reaction to the overall ICCS process. Comments such as the following reflect this general positive experience: "I really liked the card sort ... I found out quite a bit about myself from just that class." Another student explained that by doing the card sort "I learned things about myself that sometimes you don't realize or you don't think about." 

Certain key aspects of the ICCS experience seemed to account for these positive results. Students found the division of the ICCS into three competency categories effective: "It is helpful to have the different colors. ... It provides a kind of a shift." They also commented that the competencies provided a comprehensive way of looking at career: "I think they were all helpful. 'Why‚' 'how‚' and 'whom' were important." This feedback lends support to the notion that the Intelligent Careers model provides a holistic perspective of career (Parker‚ 2000). 

Regarding the cards themselves‚ participants viewed the knowing-why cards as particularly helpful. A comment such as the following illustrates this positive reaction: "I thought that the blue ones were the most helpful because they helped me really specify what my values were." Values have been recognized as a vital subject to explore with clients in career counseling (Lebo‚ Harrington‚ & Tillman‚ 1995; Slaney & Mackinnon-Slaney‚ 1990; Super‚ 1992; Super & Sverko‚ 1995; Vondracek‚ 1995; Zytowski‚ 1994)‚ and these results confirm this view. 

Finally‚ the participant package received positive support. The following comment was typical: "I found the process of writing out‚ the reflection on the choices‚ to be helpful." Students reported that it was useful to have a permanent record of their results that they could refer to in the future. 

Having outlined the positive aspects of the experience‚ it is also important to identify aspects of the experience that were viewed from a more negative perspective. Criticism about the cards themselves focused on two areas. First‚ students expressed concern about the similar wording used on some of the cards. One student reported‚ "One of the initial things that I was feeling when doing it was that it was very difficult to discriminate between some of the cards." 

Second‚ the set of cards receiving the most negative reaction were those dealing with the knowing-whom domain. These cards seemed to reflect a mercenary element for some students. Comments such as the following illustrate this reaction: "Just with the green‚ I felt selfish‚ almost like you're using people." Another participant lamented her lack of work experience‚ which made sorting the knowing-whom cards difficult: "The one that I thought was the most difficult was the green one‚ because I really hadn't worked that much." Parker (1996) also found that individuals had trouble with this category. The area of relationship building in terms of career development is relatively underdeveloped‚ and few traditional exercises help clients explore this domain. 

Despite some of their difficulties with the card sort process‚ many participants stated that they preferred the ICCS to other activities used in the career development group‚ which is an important finding in light of the fact that this was the first time the ICCS was used in this setting. 

Enhancing the Effectiveness of the ICCS 

Based on participants' statements‚ some recommendations can be made for enhancing card sort administration. As Gray-Vickrey (1993) noted‚ the creative synergy of focus groups often leads to the generation of new ideas by participants. 

The first and perhaps most important way to enhance the administration process is to ensure that individuals have sufficient time to complete the card sort process. Participants valued interaction with fellow group members and would have appreciated‚ as one student said‚ "more time to reflect upon it immediately after so that we get a chance to go through why we chose some of those that we did and have dialogue about that." With adequate time‚ participants might also be able to distinguish the subtle differences between items and‚ thus‚ develop a better understanding of the three ways of knowing. Several students suggested that 1 1/2-2 hours would be appropriate. Because the ICCS was used within an existing program‚ the time that was allocated for this activity was limited. The negative impact of the externally imposed time constraints illustrates the importance of the person-centered‚ subjective view of career‚ which prioritizes the client's needs in developing maximally effective interventions (Collin & You ng‚ 1986; Parker‚ 2002). 

A second way to improve administration might be to use the Intelligent Career model as an organizing framework (Parker‚ 2002). Other career exploration activities can be linked to this framework and discussed with clients. For example‚ values exploration exercises fall within the domain of knowing-why; informational interviewing is an example of knowing-whom. To help clients better understand the Intelligent Career framework‚ it would be valuable for counselors to explain‚ in some detail‚ the meaning of the three ways of knowing. Providing more information might also help to strengthen the educational nature of the ICCS‚ which several students reported that they appreciated. 

Finally‚ the Intelligent Career model can be used in tandem with other career counseling principles‚ such as the constructivist framework proposed by Savickas (2001b). Savickas (1995) suggested that counselors work to understand clients' personality types‚ vocational concerns‚ and career narratives‚ specifically focusing on eliciting stories that reveal the client's life theme. The ICCS‚ which requires counselors to interact with clients to explore the meaning of items the clients choose‚ is of great value in this task. 

Directions for Future Theory and Research 

Because this was the first study to explore the use of the ICCS with university students‚ it is important for research to be conducted on other university campuses and with larger samples. Another useful direction might be to explore the card sort choices made by different populations. The Intelligent Careers framework is an example of the innovative concepts that can result from bridging two traditionally distinct areas: career counseling and organizational behavior. As Savickas (2001a) explained‚ such unions should be encouraged because they stimulate the development of models and methods that conceptualize changing ways of working and living. 

The ICCS exercise encourages both client and counselor to become actively engaged in a mutually creative discussion that is both enjoyable and productive. Further exploration of the active engagement (Amundson‚ 1998) nature of the ICCS might be a fruitful direction for research. 

Using qualitative methodologies‚ as shown in this article and recommended by others (Borgen & Amundson‚ 1990; Savickas‚ 2001a)‚ would help to illustrate the complexity of the career exploration and decision-making process and broaden the scope of research topics. 

Conclusion 

The ICCS is valuable to career practitioners‚ clients‚ and researchers as frequent economic change becomes the norm. The process provides a holistic view of career through its framework of the three ways of knowing that the Intelligent Career model offers. The positive results of the research conducted thus far have shown the ICCS to have applicability to a range of client populations and that potential difficulties can be prevented through appropriate planning and administration. By connecting client and counselor in an enjoyable and personalized process‚ the ICCS illustrates the power of active engagement (Amundson‚ 1998) in helping individuals better understand themselves and the new world of work. 


TABLE 1 

Number of Data Units per Thematic Category for Features of the 
Intelligent Careers Card Sort[R] (ICCS) 

Category‚ Title‚ and Subtitle                        Positive  Negative 

Overall process                                         36         9 
  General positive comments                             12 
  Liked the choices                                      1 
  Results were useful                                    2 
  Prioritizing cards was useful                          5 
  Learned new things about self or workplace            16 
  Not enough choices                                               2 
  Large number of cards made prioritizing difficult                7 
Timing of administration                                 7         6 
  Good to have in first session                          7 
  Better to do in a later session                                  6 
Wording                                                  5        23 
  Liked use of first person                              2 
  Liked words in context                                 2 
  Liked business language                                1 
  Item not useful                                                  1 
  Similar wording confusing                                       17 
  Business language difficult                                      5 
Opinions about the competency categories                29        15 
  Division of sort into three categories useful          7 
  Liked the blue (knowing-why)                          16 
  Liked the yellow (knowing-how)                         2 
  Liked the green (knowing-whom)                         4 
  Didn't like the blue (knowing-why)                               1 
  Didn't like the yellow (knowing-how)                             1 
  Didn't like the green (knowing-whom)                            13 
Participant package                                     11         1 
  Questions in package useful                            4 
  Writing results and comments useful                    7 
  Questions not useful                                             1 
Comparisons with other group exercises                  11         7 
  Preferred ICCS                                        11 
  Preferred other exercises                                        7 
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Susan M. Wnuk‚ Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto; Norman E. Amundson‚ Department of Educational and Counselling Psychology and Special Education‚ University of British Columbia. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Susan M. Wnuk‚ 2015-666 Spadina Avenue‚ Toronto‚ ON M5S 2H8‚ Canada (e-mail: swnuk@oise.utoronto.ca). 

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